A Simplified Model of the Universe
Clarifying dark matter, dark energy, and the big bang
Sol Aisenberg, Ph.D.
International Technology Group
36 Bradford Road, Natick, MA 01760
508/651-0140
itgplus@earthlink.net
saisenberg@alum.mit.edu
Draft 9
October 12, 2004
ABSTRACT
Many of the mysteries in the current model of the universe are caused by the ASSUMPTION that Newton's gravitational constant can be used outside our solar system. Newton's and Einstein's theory of gravity are only based upon observations in our solar system. We propose that Newton's gravitational constant Gn be generalized as a power series by adding a term A*r linear in the separation r, which is significant at galactic spacing but tiny in our solar system. Our theory is different from the MOND theory of Milgrom which involves acceleration and interpolation between limits. The addition of an Additional Long Range Gravitational component (ALRG) to Gn predicts and explains the observed flat velocity rotation curves of spiral galaxies (Rubin), and the unexplained motion of groups of interacting galaxies (Zwicky) - without requiring dark matter. Other mysteries are clarified when we examine the ASSUMPTION that the Hubble constant and the red-shift can be used to measure the expanding velocity by the Doppler Effect. The red-shift actually includes three other contributions which are not related to velocity, but depend upon gravity and separation. These three contributions to the red-shift will explain other mysteries including the decrease in the Hubble constant with increasing measurement separation, and Olbers' paradox (why the sky is dark). They will explain tired light by long range gravitational drag, and the existence and uniform temperature of the CMB. The red-shift can no longer be used to support the theory of the expanding universe, the accelerating expansion, the inflationary universe, dark energy, the big bang, or the use of the Hubble constant in determining the age of the universe and the event horizon. Our simplified universe explains and is supported by published observations of others.
SUMMARY
In considering many of the mysteries of the accepted model of the universe, my intuition was that a cause may be the implicit ASSUMPTION that the laws of gravity are also applicable far outside our solar system. An unexpected consequence was the realization that the Hubble law was also based upon an ASSUMPTION that the red-shift could be used to measure the expansion of the universe. For the last seven decades, these assumptions have resulted in the need to invent the mysterious dark matter and dark energy to explain the observations.
There have been many who have questioned some aspects of the standard theory of the universe but without acceptance. However, my simplified model of the universe (yet another model) clarifies an unusually large number of mysteries, observations, and conclusions and may bring us closer to the real model.
We will correct two ASSUMPTIONS, long range gravity, and the meaning of the red-shift - which are responsible for many mysteries in our universe.
One of the major mysteries is the need for vast amounts of dark matter to explain the observed flat velocity rotation curves of spiral galaxies as reported by Vera Rubin and others. An even earlier suggestion for the need for dark matter was reported by Fritz Zwicky who observed the motion of galaxies in groups, and suggested that additional invisible matter was needed to satisfy the Virial theory (involving kinetic energy and potential energy).
If dark matter is believed to exist, one should explain why this dark matter is not visible from reflected light from nearby visible stars, like our moon is illuminated by our sun. There is also the need to explain why dark matter, if it existed, did not eclipse light from nearby stars. Dark matter is presumably only based upon extra gravitational effects.
There is a simple solution to the missing dark matter and we show that they are just massive entities introduced to explain the mysterious motion of stars in spiral galaxies and of groups of galaxies outside our solar system. (One of the biggest fudge factors in physics.)
In our simplified model of the universe is the generalization of the gravitational constant of Newton, Gn, into a power series in distance, r, and where the contributions to the gravitational force become apparent at galactic separations. Thus we suggest that there is an Additional Long Range Gravitational force, ALRG, and the gravitational constant can be represented as: G = Gn + A*r + B*r*r, which reduces to Newton's gravitational constant Gn at planetary separations. When asked where the coefficients A and B come from, the answer is that they came from the same place as G. Comparison with observations can show if A or B are zero.
The value of the A coefficient can be determined from data for rotational velocities of the outer portions of spiral galaxies, and is able to explain these observations without requiring dark matter. This suggests a similar explanation for the observations of Zwicky for groups of galaxies.
This additional long range gravitational force, ALRG, is different from the interesting MOND theory of M. Milgrom, which involves acceleration and interpolation between limits.
The coefficient B suggests a force independent of distance and can explain the reported tiny central attraction force experienced by the space probes Pioneer 10 and 11 in our solar system. (Anderson) The implications of this concept should be investigated but additional related data probably will be difficult and expensive to obtain.
Note that the laws of gravity by Newton and Einstein were based and validated only from observations in our solar system. It is incorrectly ASSUMED that Newton's gravitational constant is also valid at large galactic separations.
Our theory of a generalized gravitational constant has unexpectedly led to considerations of other mysteries in the accepted model of the universe and analysis of the meaning and application of the red-shift.. The additional loss of photon energy (red-shift) due to moving against the additional long range gravity was considered next.
When we examined the early work of Hubble with respect to the red-shift we found that he originally described the red-shift as "apparent velocity". We examined Hubble's law and the use of red-shift to measure velocity and questioned its use in demonstrating the expansion of the universe. We show four contributions to the red-shift and only one is related to the Doppler Effect and velocity. One consequence is our prediction and explanation for the decrease of the original Hubble constant to an asymptotic value as data for further galaxies are added.
Einstein has described the effect of gravity on light photons, and the loss of photon energy (red-shift) in leaving the gravitational attraction of mass, and the bending of light by gravity. Because in our model the gravitational force extends much further than the usual inverse square component, we predict that the photon energy loss persists longer with separation and can provide an additional contribution to the red-shift continuing to very large distances - and in addition to the Doppler Effect.
Following up the long range gravitational force equation by integrating to determine the energy expended going against additional long range gravity shows that the red-shift (reduction of photon energy) in moving against this long range force gives a dependence of the red-shift as an ln(r) logarithmic function of separation. For smaller separations, this provides a linear dependence of the red-shift with distance (the linear Hubble law dependence).
According the Einstein's General Relativity, one contribution to the red-shift is the photon energy lost due to leaving the inverse square gravitational well of the emitting star and the associated masses. For very large masses the red-shift can be significant compared to any Doppler contribution.
In searching the literature I found that Fritz Zwicky suggested the concept of "tired light" due to gravitational drag which would explain the red-shift as a linear function of distance traveled. This contribution to the red-shift becomes even more than significant because of the draining of photon energy loss due to additional long range gravitational drag on vastly more gas and dust in the interstellar path, without requiring or involving less frequent inelastic scattering collisions which would degrade the image of the source. The additional attractive gravitational force and loss of photon energy decrease inversely with distance, but the volume of interaction increases as the square of distance.
The Hubble law and the red-shift are assumed to measure receding velocity due to the Doppler Effect. However there are three other contributions to the red-shift that depend upon gravity and do not depend upon velocity.
This new understanding also explains Olbers' paradox (why the sky is dark). It is due to the loss of photon energy in traveling large distances. The number of stars increases with distance, but the light from these stars will lose energy with distance and will decrease to below the visible range.
Thus the theory of the inflationary universe which depends upon red-shifts should be reexamined. Also, the use of the Hubble constant, based upon red-shift and velocity, in computing the age of the universe is questioned. Age determination due to nuclear processes can give the age.
With the questioning of the ability of the Hubble red-shift to support the concept of the expanding universe, the related mysteries such as dark energy, negative gravity, and the acceleration of the expansion all no longer are supported by observations.
The long range ln(r) component of the red-shift predicts an apparent acceleration of the supposed expansion of the universe at large values of Z, the red-shift parameter. (Perlmutter) Gaps in the red-shift are also explained because of gaps in distances..
The big bang theory which is an important part of the standard model of the universe should be reconsidered.
The observed uniformity, thermal equilibrium, and the black body temperature 3.7 deg K of the cosmic microwave background, CMB, are also predicted and explained without requiring the big bang and inflation. Our different theory, for the cosmic microwave background (CMB) and the temperature of the CMB, is based upon the effect of gravity on photons traveling from stars at great interstellar distances.
Thus the big bang and the inflationary universe, which are based upon the cosmic microwave background, CMB, the event horizon, the red-shift and the Doppler Effect, apparently lose their validity. The event horizon which is an important part of the big bang theory is computed from the age of the universe and the velocity of light and should be reconsidered. The concept of inflation is related to the concept of the big-bang, and also should be reexamined.
There are many other implications of my simplified theory of the universe. The future work of others can be more productive if they are alerted to the existence of this simplified model.
INTRODUCTION
This analysis describes my modified theory of gravity for the Universe that agrees with the gravitational theory of Newton and of Einstein - for smaller separations such as in our solar system - and is also valid and significant at galactic separations.
Presentation of my theory of Additional Long Range Gravity (ALRG) can simplify the model of the universe. In order to prevent this theory from being classified as speculation, items of supporting information based upon published observations by others will be included. A number of related comments will be included.
My model is different from the MOND theory of Milgrom involving modified gravity because it does not involve the MOND model which uses acceleration plus a non linear dependence and interpolation between limits.
My suggestion is that many of the beliefs about the universe are wrong and needlessly complicated and use the invocation of massive fudge factors such as dark matter and dark energy. I need only one simple assumption about gravity and components of the red-shift to simplify the model of the universe and it is consistent with observations. Of course, I take responsibility for any of my errors.
The proposed model of the universe does not need to involve quantum theory or Einstein's Relativity. They are left to the many scientists who use them to explain many of the mysteries of the universe. However Einstein's theory of General Relativity involving the effect of gravity on light photons is involved and is important in explaining additional contributions to the red-shift..
In our work, observations and experiments take priority over theory, particularly when there are conflicts.
For over 70 years (starting in about 1930) the scientific community has been concerned about problems and mysteries in the understanding of the universe. One problem is finding dark matter, many times larger than the visible matter represented by light from stars. Other problems are the apparent expansion of the universe and the apparent acceleration of the expansion, and the postulated dark energy and negative gravity.
According to my new theory, the problems are caused by two fundamental ASSUMPTIONS, which are commonly used by others without proof. One is that the attractive force of Newton is valid without modification at very large separations outside our solar system. The second ASSUMPTION, again made without proof, is that the red-shift and the Hubble constant can be used to measure the velocity of remote stars and very far separations. This assumption about the red-shift as a measure of receding velocity is serious because it has produced a belief that the universe is expanding, that the expansion is accelerating, and that there is dark energy.
Associated with the assumption of the expanding universe is the concept of the big bang, partly supported by the Cosmic Microwave Background (CMB) and the observed temperature and uniformity of the CMB.
Also part of the standard theory is the concept of the inflation phase of the beginning of the universe. The event horizon based upon the estimated life of the universe and the velocity of interaction limited to c requires the big bang and inflation to explain the uniform cosmic microwave background and the uniformity temperature. Our simplified model explains the cosmic microwave background and the uniform temperature without requiring a big bank or inflation.
To differentiate our new simplified model from pure speculation, we will provide a number of items that provide supporting arguments for our new theory. They are based upon the vast body of astronomical observations reported by others because I do not need or have access to observational equipment.
As part of my consideration of the effect of my new theory, I will identify and suggest some tasks that can be done by others who have access to primary astronomical data, or who can carry out calculations to evaluate the suitability of my theory.
Initially, my analysis of the constant velocity rotation curves of spiral galaxies as reported by Vera Rubin and others has lead to my new theory that Newton's gravitational theory and the gravitational constant, G, has an additional attraction term that increases with separation r. It provides a simple extension of the gravitational force of Newton and Einstein that is only significant for large separations.
My new theory is that the gravitational constant, G, can be generalized and expanded into a simple power series in terms of distance, r, and in the simple form G = Gn + A*r where Gn is Newton's gravitational constant and where A can be proven to be non zero when evaluated using observations of spiral galaxies. When asked where the term A*r comes from, an answer can be that it comes from the same place as Newton's gravitational constant.
Thus according to my new theory, the inverse square attractive force between masses is augmented at very large separations by another force that decreases much slower as a function of separation and involves an additional term in describing the gravitational constant. The new representation of the long range gravitational constant Ga is approximated as part of a power series: Ga = Gn + A*r where Gn is Newton's gravitational constant, r is the separation, and the constant A is to be determined by use of published observations - or else shown to be zero. Note that this reduces to Newton's and Einstein's description of gravity in our solar system where separations are smaller than galactic separations.
With very precise measurements possible using space probes, a very tiny addition to gravity apparently can be detected and measured, and this alone shows that the theory of gravity should be reexamined. Note that there may be a second addition in the form of B*r*r which may explain the motion of the space probes Pioneer 10 and 11 in our solar system. The implications of this term may be studied later.
Others have suggested a modification of Newtonian gravity. One significant suggestion was MOND (Modified Newtonian Dynamics) hypothesized in 1983 by Moti Milgrom. Briefly, in the MOND version the modification of the effect of gravity occurs at very small accelerations, involves nonlinear acceleration terms, and uses interpolation functions. It is different from our simple generalization of the gravitational constant which adds a few terms of a power series which depends upon separation and does not involve acceleration.
Implications of our simplified theory influence and explain the supposed expansion of the universe, the acceleration of the expansion of the universe, negative gravity, dark energy, the big bang, and the deduced transverse velocity of very remote galaxies at velocities greater than the velocity of light. A significant contribution is the prediction of the changing Hubble constant, and the meaning of the key observation, which are the red-shifts.
An important part of the value and validity of a new theory is the ability to agree with existing observations, but even more important to make many predictions that can be confirmed by future observations.
We will provide descriptions of observations that can be explained and predicted by our theory of galactic gravity. Additional items will be added from time to time.
We provide 21 items at present.
SUPPORT FOR OUR THEORY, FROM OBSERVATIONS OF OTHERS
ITEM #1
EXPLAINING THE APPARENT DARK MATTER IN SPIRAL GALAXIES
While observing a Public Broadcast TV program describing the flat rotation velocity curves of spiral galaxies I found it hard the believe the postulated existence of massive amounts of dark matter. Instinctively I felt that if, in the region showing constant rotational velocity curves, the relationship between gravitational attraction and distance was an inverse function of distance rather than the usual inverse square relationship (established in our solar system), the observed flat velocity rotation curves could be explained without needing the massive fudge factor of dark matter.
The outward force on a mass, m, rotating at a tangential velocity, v, at a constant radius r around a central mass M is balanced by the gravitational attraction and is described by the equation:
m*v*v/r =m*M*G/(r*r)
this reduces to
v*v*r = M*G
We can assume that M is a function of r, or G is a function of r, or both are, giving
v*v*r = M(r)*G(r)
Thus for the outer region of spiral galaxies where the red-shift data show a flat velocity rotation curve as a function of radius, we are led to the conclusion that in the outer region of the spiral galaxies the product of G and M is a linear function of radius. If one ASSUMES that the gravitational constant G is independent of distance, r, then one is led to the usual conclusion that the mass M must be a linear function of r in that region, even if such mass is dark and not visible. The amount of dark matter required to satisfy the observations is said to be much larger than the visible matter.
By taking the alternate explanation where the gravitational constant G is a function of r, and has a component that is linear in r, we can explain these observations without dark matter. When this component is significant at separations outside our solar system (at separations comparable to the size of spiral galaxies, about 3 kilo parsec) we can explain the observations without needing dark matter. This alternative is desirable according to William of Ockham's Razor which prefers the simpler alternative.
There is a need to explain why dark matter, if it existed, is not visible from reflected light from nearby visible stars, like our moon is illuminated by our sun. There is also the need to explain why dark matter, if it existed, did not eclipse light from nearby stars like eclipses caused by our moon and the planet Venus. Dark matter is presumably only based upon extra gravitational effects. Our theory of a gravitational constant that has a component that increases slowly with distance eliminates the need for massive dark matter and the associated mysteries. The work on searching for dark matter such as WIMPS can be redirected.
Published data for flat velocity rotation curves of spiral galaxies helped determine an initial estimate for the value for A. This constant, A, describing the additional long range gravitational force, was evaluated by using the published observations for the constant velocity outer rotation curves of spiral galaxies. The constant, A, was evaluated to be none zero because it described the observed motion without needing dark matter.
At the transition radius for spiral galaxies, Rs, where the rotation velocity curves become constant, the Newtonian force and the additional long range force become approximately equal. An estimate of Rs was obtained from the intersection of the rising portion of the rotation curve with the flat portion of the rotation curve. Preliminary analysis of data from spiral galaxies NGC2403 and NGC3198 using a spiral Galaxy transition radius Rs of 2.7 parsec plus the known value of Newton's gravitational constant Gn (Gn = 6.672 x 10^(-8) cm*cm*cm/gr/sec*sec) gives a preliminary value for A = Gn/Rs = 2.16 10^(-26) cm*cm/gr/sec*sec). This should be refined by curve fitting using data for rotation velocity as a function of radius, r, for a number of spiral galaxies.
Thus this theory, based upon published observations, shows that dark matter is not needed to explain flat rotation curves of spiral galaxies.
Unexpectedly, this has permitted me to explain and predict many other observations and mysteries in the universe - and could lead to questioning many well accepted theories of the universe. These additional insights will be described in later pages, in web sites, and possibly in some professional publications.
Item #2
EXPLAINING EARLIER SUGGESTION OF DARK MATTER BASED UPON MOTION OF GALAXIES IN GROUPS
The unusual motion of remote groups of galaxies was earlier described by Fritz Zwicky (about 1930), and introduced the concept of dark matter (missing matter). Zwicky used observations of the velocities of galaxies in a group of galaxies together with the observed separations of the galaxies in the group. The Virial theory showed a discrepancy between observations and theory. One term in the Virial equation involves kinetic energy, and the other term involves potential energy (using the gravitational constant). Zwicky suggested the existence of large quantities of dark matter to potentially resolve the discrepancy. Thus the concept of dark matter was introduced as an explanation for unusual galaxy motion, and was prior to the concept of dark matter proposed for spiral galaxies. It is suggested here that the Virial theory involving kinetic energy and potential energy (involving a gravitational constant) should be reexamined for cases of galactic separations and an additional long range gravitational force. The Virial theory should be valid when used to determine the mass of planets rotating around a sun because of the much smaller separations.
Thus, observation of unusual motion of groups of spiral galaxies can support our model of the long range gravitational constant. Because of our simple model involving an additional long range gravitational force, the unusual motion of groups of galaxies was explained without the need to invoke massive amounts of dark matter. It provides a beautiful alternative to dark matter. Again according to William of Ockham's razor, the simplest explanation is preferred when it is consistent with past observations and with future predictions.
Item #3
EXPLAINING WHY THE GRAVITATIONAL THEORY OF NEWTON AND EINSTEIN ARE STILL VALID IN OUR SOLAR SYSTEM
Newton's theory of gravity is based upon observations in our solar system and therefore is still valid in the solar system. The proofs of Einstein's theory of General Relativity are also based upon observations in our solar system.
Four proofs of General Relativity are:
Rapid precession of Mercury's orbit
Bending of light passing near sun and influenced by gravity
Gravitational red-shift in strong gravitational field
Time dilation in gravitational fields - depends upon distance from center of earth.
Because the separations in our solar system are very small compared to galactic separations, the additional component of the gravitational constant is small and the description of the effect of gravity can be described by the usual inverse square dependence in our solar system.
ITEM #4
WHY THERE IS A NEED TO REEXAMINE GRAVITY IN OUR SOLAR SYSTEM
This is just suggestive and needs additional analysis. Observation involving very high precision measurements within our solar system appears to support our theory of an additional gravity contribution. Observations of Pioneer 10 and 11 probes indicated that they were slowing down faster than predicted by Einstein's general theory of relativity. "Some extra tiny force - equivalent to a ten-billionth of the gravity at Earth's surface - must be acting on the probes, slowing their outward motion." Analysis by John D. Anderson and his team at JPL ruled out a number of possible explanations of this extra force. Our theory predicts a very tiny force within solar system separations, and it is too small to significantly influence the motion of planets but can slightly influence space vehicles.
The precision measurements reported for the motion of NASA probes Pioneer 10 an 11 indicated a very tiny but verified attractive force towards the sun in addition to the expected gravitational force of the sun. This indicates that there apparently is an additional term in the gravitational attraction that and becomes large enough to detect at solar system separations.
THE IMPLICATIONS OF THE ADDITION THE GRAVITATIONAL CONSTANT HAS LEAD TO THE FOLLOWING UNEXPECTED INSIGHTS ABOUT THE red-shiftS.
ITEM #5
EXPLAINING THE EFFECT OF THE ADDITIONAL GRAVITY CONTRIBUTION ON THE red-shift
As an unexpected result of the enhanced gravitational theory we found that due to the additional long range attractive gravitational force there was a change of potential energy that becomes significant for light traveling large distances - and this contributes to the red-shift of the light. Integrating the force over distance gives the energy change, and it shows that there is a long range red-shift related to photon travel distance in addition to the red-shift and blueshift due to the Doppler Effect. This is confirmed by observations showing a linear plot of red-shift as a function of distance to remote stars, and where the distance is determined from observations of Supernovas Type 1a.
However, when the equation involving the galactic gravity term is integrated to describe the energy lost in traveling galactic distances the result is a term that is a logarithmic dependence on distance. For the beginning part of the logarithmic function, the energy loss (and red-shift) is approximately a linear function of distance.
But for distances corresponding to light from very far light sources (stars) the distance based upon measurements of light intensity received on Earth will indicate a distance larger than that deduced from the red-shift. There is an upward curvature of light deduced distance vs. red-shift deduced distance. This has been (incorrectly) used to claim that the acceleration of the universe is accelerating (Perlmutter). It also suggests dark energy and negative gravity.
I predict that when the separations (distances) for Supernovas Type 1a light sources are plotted on the y axis against the Z values which correspond to red-shifts, on the x axis, the upward curving portion of the plot will be reduced for the cases of very large separations. This can eliminate the need to propose an accelerating expansion. In any event the use of red-shifts to measure distances should be reexamined, and can not be used to support the expansion of the universe or the acceleration of the expansion.
ITEM #6
DESCRIBING THREE ADDITIONAL CONTRIBUTIONS TO red-shiftS - WHICH ARE INDEPENDENT OF VELOCITY
Observations of red-shift and deduced star distances of supernovae Type Ia have demonstrated a linear relationship where the red-shift increases with travel distance of the photons. Fritz Zwicky had earlier introduced the concept of "tired Light" where photon energy is lost in traveling, and due to gravitational drag. When others assumed a model where the photon energy was lost in collisions with space dust, objections were raised because this model implied diffuse scattering that would lose image quality. Also in view of the gravitational range of the classical inverse square effect of gravity, the probable density of gas and dust in space was too small to contribute much gravitational drag and red-shift. However, in view of the extended range of the inverse r component of the effect of additional gravity drag, the gas and dust in interstellar space can contribute significantly to the red-shift.
In my theory (particularly where the effect of gravity persists for larger separations) the mechanism of interacting gravitationally with interstellar dust extracts energy from the photon, resulting in a red-shift. The dust particles are moved slightly by the gravitational force of the mass of the passing photon and this is similar to the transfer of energy from the moon to produce tidal movement in the oceans of Earth resulting in a loss of kinetic energy of the moon. Observations have shown that gravitational fields will influence the path of photons. An example is the gravitational lens effect.
When many tiny gravitational interactions are involved with interstellar dust, the average effect retains the direction of the photon, thus preserving image quality. Fritz Zwicky was indeed right about his observation of "tired light" With this insight about the cause of red-shift the ASSUMPTION that the red-shift was caused by the Doppler Effect has led to many false directions about the model of the universe.
This suggests a TASK involving recalculation of the gravitational drag and the enhanced red-shift.
There are four contributions to the observed red-shifts.
First is the Classical Doppler shift due to velocity.
Second is the photon energy loss in traveling galactic distances and losing energy due to the long range component of the gravitational constant. Note that this is a logarithmic dependence upon distance and does not involve velocity.
Third there is the photon energy loss due to gravitational interaction with dust and gases in the photon travel. This transfers motion and energy to the dust and can become significant because the interaction range is increased significantly because of the long range gravitational component. For this component the red-shift is a linear function of distance, and does not involve velocity.
Fourth is the component due to the photon energy lost in leaving massive masses due to the effect of gravity on the photon. This is related to Einstein's theory of general relativity and the effect of gravity on light. The effect of gravity on the red-shift was considered by Robert Trumpler who believed that the gravitational effect could explain observed excess red-shifts of some stars and could be used to confirm General Relativity. In around 1935, he calculated that the strength of gravity on the surfaces of stars was too small to give a gravitational red-shift as large as observed. (Arp, 1998, p. 98) I suggest that if Trumpler had included the additional long range gravitational component in addition to the usual inverse square gravitational term, he might have obtained calculated red-shifts more in agreement with observations.
Large masses are present in black holes in galaxies. This explains observations of galaxy pairs that apparently are at similar separations (because of observed streams of stars between the galaxies) and the different red-shifts that are supposed to show that they are at significantly different distances (Halton Arp). red-shift due to extra large black holes in one galaxy can predict and explain this mystery of connected galaxies but with different red-shifts. Again, this component of the red-shift is not related to velocity.
There is no reason to expect the receding velocity to increase with separation/distance. Thus the red-shift support for an expanding universe is not valid.
An important implication of the new understanding of the red-shift is that it questions the use of observed red-shifts to show that the universe is expanding, or the acceleration of the expansion. It also questions the dark energy, negative gravity. Also questioned is the theory of the Big Bang and the inflationary universe - which use the supposed expansion as one of the supports.
By combining the ln(r) dependence of the red-shift energy loss and the linear dependence on r due to gravitational drag (tired light), we can predict a red-shift dependence of D1*r + D2*ln(r).
I have been unable to obtain access to tabulations of distance determined from light received and the associated measured red-shift so that I could evaluate the coefficients D1 and D2 and determine the ability of the equation to fit the observations. The form of the function appears to fit a published graph of the data. At some point I will expand the published graph of the data (Perlmutter), and read off the coordinates for use in curve fitting.
This could be an interesting TASK for others, particularly a graduate student.
REEXAMINING THE HUBBLE CONSTANT
ITEM #7
WHY THE HUBBLE ASSUMPTION RELATING red-shift TO RECEDING VELOCITY IS WRONG
When examining the history of the use of the red-shift for very remote stars as a way of measuring receding velocity, we found that there was another unproven ASSUMPTION and was made by Hubble and others. We learned that the original papers (Hubble and Humason, 1931) had a footnote that indicated that it is not certain that the large red-shifts should be interpreted as a Doppler Effect but for convenience can be interpreted in terms of velocity and referred to as "apparent velocities". This assumption was later incorrectly converted into evidence of actual velocity and led to serious beliefs about the expanding universe and subsequently the acceleration of the expansion. It apparently even misled Einstein about the speed of the expansion.
The three velocity independent contributions to the red-shift question the use of the red-shift to measure the velocity according to only the Doppler Effect.
Also because the red-shift contains three contributions that are not related to velocity, the use of the measured red-shifts to describe the speed of the expansion will give values of the speed of the expansion that are larger than the actual values.
Having opinions and wishes about a static universe or an open or closed universe can lead to assumptions and fudge factors that are not validated by observations. Observations, when interpreted in the wrong way (like the red-shift) can be misleading.
ITEM #8
EXPLAINING THE DECREASING VALUE OF THE HUBBLE CONSTANT
Another observation and problem is the large decrease in the Hubble constant as measurements are made to include the more remote stars.
Our hypotheses and the resulting equations (in Appendix A) predicts that the Hubble constant relating red-shift to distance will be larger for the closer stars and will decrease to an asymptotic value for the more remote stars that can be measured with more modern techniques. Published observations show that the early Hubble constant is about a factor of five to ten greater than modern values. Re-measurement of the Hubble constant for the nearer stars should be done using modern equipment to confirm the trend downward for greater distances and to see if the data fits the equation we derived for the dependence of apparent Hubble constant on measurement distance (which increased with time and the ability to measure out to further distances). See Appendix A, equation 8.
A serious error in the current theory of the universe is the assumption that red-shifts of remote stars are only due to velocity rather than including red-shifts caused by travel distances. This assumption suggested the current theory of the expanding universe, plus the acceleration of the expansion. It is also related to the model of the Big Bang, the concepts of the cosmological constant and dark energy to power the acceleration of the expansion. Before we speculate too much on the origin of the universe, and the end of the universe, perhaps we should first understand the present observations of the universe.
OTHER OBSERVATIONS INFLUENCED BY THE THEORY OF ADDITIONAL LONG RANGE GRAVITY
ITEM #9
EXPLAINING TIRED LIGHT
This provides additional support by explaining the "TIRED LIGHT" concept of Fritz Zwicky, which earlier was presented without acceptable physical reasons for the loss of photon energy with travel. Zwicky was correct in proposing "TIRED LIGHT" and energy loss in connection with the red-shift, and there is now a physical explanation and prediction due to photon energy loss in moving against a long range component of the gravitational constant, plus the increased gravitational drag. Zwicky should have been taken more seriously.
There is a contribution to the loss of photon energy traveling large interstellar distances. Photons are influenced by gravitational attraction to mass as has been shown by Einstein and by deflection of light by our sun, and by the observation of gravitational lenses.
When photons travel, they expert forces on dust and gas within their gravitational influence and transfer motion end energy to the dust and gas. This energy loss is proportional to distance. Loss of energy by inelastic collisions and scattering, which would blur the image, is less likely and less important.
The increased range of gravitational attraction associated with the additional gravitational component will increase the interacting volume and the gravitational drag on the dust and gas in that volume. There is no need for the less frequent dust collisions that would also blur the images.
Thus the red-shift and blueshift have a component due to gravity and the travel separation/distance in addition to the Doppler shift due to the velocity component. For large distances, the travel component becomes significant.
ITEM #10
EXPLAINING OLBERS' PARADOX AND THE DARK SKY
The meaning of the dark sky (Olbers' paradox) and the Cosmic Microwave Background (CMB) may also be reexamined from the point of view of the new explanation for "tired light". Our theory predicts that when light from very remote stars reach us, their energy loss due to the large travel distance has decreased the energy of the electromagnetic photons below that of the visible range, and where some are in the microwave range (CMB). The slower photons essentially come uniformly from all directions with slight irregularities due to irregularities in the spatial distribution of stars. Thus light from some of the stars in the sky from large distances will have their wave lengths shifted by the distance traveled and down to ranges below the visible range and can only be detected by instruments that can detect infra red, radio signals, and microwaves.
When the photons from the source shift out of the visible range they are replaced by the higher energy UV photons that will red-shift down to the visible range. However, the Planck black body radiation curve shows that the number of photons with high energy decrease rapidly with photon energy. At some point there are not enough high energy photons to replace the original visible photons and the sky becomes black from the point of view of the very remote stars with higher red-shift due to large distances.
ITEM #11
EXPLAINING THE DISTRIBUTION OF STARS AND GALAXIES AND QUANTIFIED VALUES OF red-shiftS
Another prediction of my model is that because there are voids and discontinuities in the distribution of stars and galaxies, there should also be discontinues in the red-shifts. This is because there are discontinuities in the distances traveled and the associated loss of photon energy, according to my model.
As part of this model I predict that the discontinuities and quantified values of red-shifts (and possible periodicity) will be seen only when the red-shift data are collected from a narrow angle view of the universe.
I also predict when red-shift data are examined for periodicity for wider angle views of the universe the periodic behavior will disappear and will be rejected because the periodicity characteristics will be different in different directions and will fill in the gaps in the periodic aspects.
An example can be seen if one takes slices through a sponge which will have a random array of pores and gaps. When the images of the slices are overlaid, the gaps in the array will be filled in for the composite analysis.
Observation and red-shift with gaps and periodicity in the gaps have been reported by Halton Arp, and is described in: Seeing Red: red-shifts, Cosmology and Academic Science, by Halton Arp, (Apeirion, Montreal, Canada) 1998
Indeed, I have read that the publication of the report of gaps in red-shifts was rejected when data from larger studies showed no gaps - and this is in agreement with my prediction that when red-shift scans are made for additional directions, the gaps will be overlaid and will not be observable.
ITEM #12
EXPLAINING WHY SOME GALAXIES APPARENTLY TRAVEL TRANSVERSELY FASTER THAN THAT OF LIGHT
It has been reported (Halton Arp) that when the observed angular transverse velocity of some (presumably) remote galaxies is used in conjunction with the distances determined from observed red-shifts of these galaxies, the computed transverse velocity is larger than the velocity of light. Obviously there is an error in some of the assumptions, if the observations are to be believed.
My contribution to the understanding of the additional red-shift components due to gravity predicts that if a galaxy has a massive mass then the additional red-shift due to the long range gravity component will compute to give an incorrectly large distance. The observed transverse motion of the galaxies in question can be verified by repeated observations. However the separation/distance determined from the observed red-shift probably is too large because of a red-shift contribution due to the effect of gravity on escaping photons according to Einstein's work on the interaction of gravity and photons.
Thus the galaxy and their stars are not as far away as assumed from the measured red-shift and the galaxies are not moving faster than the velocity of light, which is not reasonable
ITEM #13
EXPLAINING THE DIFFERENT DISTANCES FOR CONNECTED GALAXIES
It has been reported (Halton Arp) that some pairs of galaxies are apparently connected by observed streams of stars moving from one galaxy to the adjacent galaxy. Surprisingly, the red-shifts observed for these galaxy pairs indicate a very large difference in distance from the observer, thus falsely indicating that they can not be adjacent in spite of the observed stream of stars.
My explanation is related to the various contributions to the observed red-shift. The loss of energy for a photon leaving from a massive body will be added to the red-shift due to distance. If the galaxy showing a larger apparent distance contains an unusually large black hole the red-shift will be larger suggesting a big difference from the apparent distance of the other galaxy in the pair. Thus the mystery is explained by an understanding of the components of the red-shift and the contribution of gravity to red-shifts.
ITEM #14
EXPLAINING THE UNUSUALLY LARGE ENERGY OUTPUT OF QUASARS
Some quasars are supposed to be the most distant objects in the universe. The host galaxies of the quasars appear very faint, but because of the very large separating of the quasar (as determined by the red-shifts) the calculated energy output of the quasar is computed to be as much as billions of stars. However, the energy output of the quasar is computed using the inverse square correction and involves the separation/distance based upon the observed red-shift and using the Hubble constant.
We have shown that the measured red-shifts contain contributions due to Einstein's gravitation escape energy loss, and the tired light effect due to gravitational drag, and the additional energy loss related to the additional long range gravity component.
If the quasars contain very large masses (like black holes) the Einstein gravitational contribution will make the observed red-shift and the separation/distance much larger than actual. The result, when the received light from the quasar is used with the erroneous separation/distance to compute the quasar energy output, the apparent energy output can be enormously wrong. The quasar is not as far as computed from the red-shift.
ITEM #15
DISCUSSING BLACK HOLES AND INFORMATION LEAKAGE
This is intended to show how an understanding of gravity can explain many of the surprising aspects of the universe.
The recent article (July, 2004) in Economist.com describing the reconsideration by Dr. Hawking of his 1970 theory of the black hole will help refine our scientific knowledge.
Hawking now feels that information can escape the black hole event horizon and that the event horizon is an "apparent horizon"
Without calling on quantum mechanics, I suggest that basic physics and theory of the Schwartzchild radius (which defines the size of the black hole) can also predict and explain information leakage and in a less complex manner. I describe how some light (information) can escape the black hole if the light originates from stars above the bottom of the black hole potential well.
The escape energy required for a mass m to escape from a potential well with a mass M, and a radius r, is given by G*M*m/r where G is the gravitational constant of Newton. The energy of a light photon with mass m and velocity c is m*c*c/2. In order to escape the gravitational potential well the photon energy must be greater than the escape energy. Thus the Schwartzchild radius Rs for a light photon with velocity c is Rs = 2*G*M/(c*c).
When the Schwartzchild radius is near galaxy size the value of the gravitational constant must include the additional long range gravitational contribution.
It can take much time for a trapped star to travel or fall the distance of the Schwartzchild radius to reach the bottom of the black hole, and some of the photons emitted from the falling star can escape the black hole because it does not gave to travel all the Schwartzchild distance.
A black hole usually is within a galaxy and sucks in nearby stars. Not all the stars in the black hole are yet at the bottom of the potential well, and there will always be some stars above the bottom of the well. Stars will emit light and light photons escaping from a potential well will have their energy reduced while the velocity c will remain unchanged. When a photon loses energy the wavelength shifts to the red and the shift depends upon the distance to the "apparent horizon". A photon from a star at the bottom of the well can lose enough energy to change to almost infinite wavelength (not detectable) in reaching the Schwartzchild radius and thus can not be seen to escape. Light from stars not at the bottom of the gravitational well can escape.
Thus photons from stars not at the bottom of the black hole gravitational well will not need as much energy to escape and can leak out of the "apparent horizon". Their wavelength spectrum (uv, visible, infrared, microwave, rf, or longer wavelengths) will depend upon the location of the emitting star in the black hole potential well.
Because stars in the black hole convert some of their mass to light, there is a mechanism for mass to leak out through the apparent horizon - along with information in the form of light (electromagnetic energy).
The additional long range gravitational constant can be a factor in the attraction of mass to the black hole and the galaxy containing the black hole.
There is a possibility that when enough mass accumulates in the mass at the center of the black hole, the black hole may explode in a manner similar to those galaxies such as super nova that explode when enough additional matter is fed into it by a nearby galaxy. Long periods of time may elapse while the stars and galaxies in the black hole funnel slowly spiral down to add to the mass at the center of the black hole. Nuclear processes still occur in the stars being trapped.
When the black hole explodes, there is a release of the mass - and the information (in mangled form).
ITEM #16
EXPLAINING THE GROWTH RATE OF GALAXIES AND FORMATION OF STRINGS OF GALAXIES
When the usual gravitational constant and the inverse square distance dependence is used to compute the time for formation of stars and galaxies, there can be differences in the computation compared with other determinations of the formation time.
My theory of long range gravity when used in the mathematical simulation of the growth of stars and galaxies should give more reliable results.
Also it has been observed that galaxies form with structure such as voids, walls, and strings of galaxies. The model of long range gravitational constant can predict the formation of galaxies in string formation. If one has two galaxies separated by a distance comparable to the range of the inverse distance component of the gravitational force the longer range force components will overlap and in the direction defined by the line connecting the two galaxies. The total gravitational attraction will be larger in the direction of that line than in the direction perpendicular to the connecting line. Thus there will be a greater tendency for attracting other galaxies to line up in the direction of the connecting line. There will be a progressive addition of galaxies along that line. Thus a string of galaxies can form drawing on the availability of galaxies within the range of the additional gravitational force.
A similar situation can work in the formation of walls of galaxies. Of course, voids will form where the galaxies are drawn away by the strings and walls.
THE BIG BANG REEXAMINED - AND THE TEMPERATURE OF THE CMB
ITEM #17
CLARIFYING THE QUESTION OF THE AGE OF THE UNIVERSE AND THE EVENT HORIZON
The age of the universe is estimated to be about 14 billion years (R. P. Kirshner) and this is based upon the currently accepted value of the Hubble constant. If the Hubble constant is a measure of the velocity of expansion as a function of distance, and if the velocity of a red-shift source was considered to be constant during its motion, then it is possible to determine the time (age of the universe) that elapsed during its motion by computing the reciprocal of the Hubble constant. However this assumes that the red-shift used in determining the Hubble constant is only due to the Doppler shift, and does not have a contribution due to tired light (gravitational drag on the traveling photons).
Also, there may be a logical problem in using the inverse of the Hubble constant to determine the age of the universe. According to the Hubble concept the velocity of the receding stars increases with separation/distance, and assuming a constant velocity for a specific range of distances is not logical. I believe that the equations of motion for changing velocity should be used to determine the time elapsed in moving with a changing velocity to a specific distance, rather than just taking a reciprocal of the Hubble constant.
The age of the universe can be determined independently by analysis of spectrographic data of the various nuclear isotopes produced by nuclear process in stars. The age of some stars determined in this way is sometimes larger than the age determined from the Hubble constant. The reexamination of the meaning of the Hubble constant can resolve the discrepancy.
The age of the universe is used to specify the range of the event horizon. This is the maximum distance that can be traversed by light or energy traveling for the age of the universe. This concept is used in the limiting thermal equilibrium involved in the theory of the big bang.
ITEM #18
PROVIDING AN ALTERNATE EXPLANATION OF THE COSMIC MICROWAVE BACKGROUND AND ITS TEMPERATURE
Observations of the presence of low level microwave radiation coming from all directions of the universe were important in showing the uniformity of the sources. The data were fit to a black body function with an apparent temperature of 2.73 deg K which is close to zero. The temperatures from different directions differ from the average by only one part in 100,000 (A. H. Guth). The concept of the big bang is accepted as an explanation for the temperature equilibrium between regions of the universe that could not interact in view of the event horizon which is based upon the life of the universe and the limit of the velocity of light. There is not enough time for widely separated portions of the universe outside the event horizon to interact and exchange energy. Thus we have the theory of the big bang.
The distance that the original photons that travel and lose enough energy to drop into the microwave wavelength can be estimated from the approximate wavelength of source visible light at 0.5 microns and the detected microwave wavelength of about 10 cm. The Z value is essentially the ratio of these wavelengths and this gives Z = 2*10 ^5 (Z= 20,000) which is a very large value indicating a very large distance of travel, enabling thermal equilibrium with gas and dust in the vast interstellar voids between stars.
In my simplified model of the universe, photons traveling a large distance (within the event horizon) will interact by gravity and extended gravity with dust and gas in its path (without needing collisions or scattering) and over the course of billions of interactions and will come into energy equilibrium with the dust and gas in the universe.
Because the dust and gas in the universe (outside of matter in stars and galaxies) are at a low temperature such as 2.73 deg K, the photon energy will not be less than that temperature, nor more than that temperature, for photons originating and interacting over large distances. Thus the CMB will be in black body thermal equilibrium with dust and gas temperature and will be uniform in all directions. Of course this does not apply to photons that arrive in the visible range because they have not traveled far enough for the photon energy to fall to the microwave energy level.
Thus we have an alternate explanation of the CMB without involving the big bang, or the concept of inflation or of the expanding universe, or the limitations of the event horizon.
ITEM #19
DEFLATING THE BIG BANG
The realization that the red-shift is not solely dependent upon the Doppler Effect removes support for the concept of receding stars and the expanding universe. The big bang theory is based upon the red shift and the concept of an apparently expanding universe that can be extrapolated back to a small source. It is also based upon the meaning of the CMB and the uniform black body equilibrium and the theory that the thermal equilibrium occurred when the universe was small and that the photon energy cooled down during expansion. Another support advanced for the big bang is the ability to predict the values of the lighter elements, hydrogen, helium, and lithium. We have no comment on the nuclear processes but they alone can not validate the theory of the big bang.
An argument for the big bang is the uniformity of the CMB in spite of the inability for regions of space to interact and equilibrate for distances greater than the event horizon.
Thus the theory of the big bang involves a starting universe smaller than the event horizon so that the components can exchange energy and come into thermal equilibrium. Then according to the theory, the initial universe expands in a very short time (a small fraction of a second) to be bigger than the event horizon, while retaining the thermal equilibrium. There is a conflict in the theory - it should be shown that the velocity of the expansion is not greater than the velocity of light in view of the expanded size of the universe and the fraction of a second available for expansion. Or are the laws of physics and the limit on the velocity of light suspended during the big bang?
There is another question. Was all the great mass of the universe present in the first fraction of a second and in a very tiny volume such as in the form of protons and electrons, or was additional mass created during the expansion?
If the mass of the universe was there at the start, how did the expanding mass escape the black hole gravity associated with this great mass?
According to our model of long range gravitational attraction to cold dust and gas in the universe, the photons will come into energy equilibrium with the cold dust and gas when traveling long interstellar distances. Traveling long distances reduces the photon energy down to the microwave range thus providing a CMB. The temperature of the photons will come into equilibrium of the gas and dust in the vast spaces encountered in the travel thus providing low temperature thermal equilibrium. This eliminates the need for the big bang to explain the temperature equilibrium of the microwave photons.
ITEM #20
PREDICTION THE MAPPED VOIDS IN THE MAPS OF THE UNIVERSE
Maps of the mass distribution in the universe at different cosmic ages and distances have been made using COBE, Boomerang, and WMAP surveys.
They have been taken at wavelengths ranging from 7.24 cm (Penzias and Wilson) down to 0.33 cm corresponding to the microwave range.
If we assume that the longer wavelength photons correspond to further distances from the observer then for remote voids (where there is less mass compared to the immediate surroundings) then I predict that the typical size of the voids when measured and computed will show a dependence on the measuring wavelength and distance to the voids.
The typical size can be the average area of the individual voids, or else the RMS value, or the mode as measured in units of degrees. Because of the geometry involved the typical size should be a linear function of the distance to the maps at different wavelengths. The ratio of the 7.24 cm and the 0.33 cm is about a factor of 22 and has a potential for testing over a significant range.
I predict a linear dependence of the average void area as a function of map distance.
Note that the voids corresponding to the visible range (about 0.5 micron) can be considered as a limiting value when plotted on a graph of the average void area as a function of wavelength (which can be considered as a measure of the map distance).
Item #21
MODIFYING THE THEORY OF GRAVITY WAVES
In view of the modified value of the gravitational constant at separations outside our solar system the theory of gravity waves should take this into question if gravity waves from other galaxies are to be detected and studied.
Even for gravity waves to be detected originating from our galaxy "Milky Way" the additional component of distance dependent gravitational constant is still greater than about 10% of Newton's gravitational constant for separations greater than 10% of the radius of the galaxy.
Will the wave equation be seriously modified by the additional long range gravity component?
The calculation of the expected gravitational signal strength should be refined to take this into effect to see if the sensitivity of the design is sufficient to detect these gravity waves.
CONCLUSION
If considered seriously, the new theory (without the need for assumptions, dark matter, dark energy, or other fudge factors) could result in a new, correct, and simplified view of the universe and could help future work of those in the field. The theory may only be accepted by a new generation of physicists. I have read that progress is "made funeral by funeral" as resistance to new theories decreases. One of my responsibilities is to make my theory available to future generations for their judgment. It sometimes takes an average of about 20 years (a generation) for new ideas toi be accepted.
It may make future research work more productive, and can lead to additional sponsored work for others in the field.
Remember, according to William of Ockham's razor, the simplest explanation is preferred when it is consistent with past observations and with future predictions.
A draft of a prior version of my model is provided as a preprint including details of the new theory and many more implications are presented at:
http://inventing-solutions.com/new-universe.htm.
The next version of this theory document is provided, at:
http://inventing-solutions.com/new-universe-theory.htm
The web site for this present latest document includes extensions and revisions of the previous web postings and is located at:
http://inventing-solutions.com/simplified-universe.htm
APPENDIX: A - EQUATIONS
This provides the evolution of the equations used for the analysis based upon the theory that includes a long-range term, A*r, to Newton's gravitational constant Gn.
FOR ROTATION CURVES OF SPIRAL GALAXIES AND DARK MATTER:
The forces balancing rotation of a mass "m" in an attractive gravitational field is:
(1) (m * v * v)/r = M*m (Gn + A*r)/r*r
where M is the attracting mass, m is the rotating mass, Gn is Newton's gravitational constant, r is the radius of rotation, and A is a coefficient in the first term in the series expansion of the gravitational constant.
The radius "ro" is defined as the radius where the Newtonian gravitational force is equal to the additional long-range force. The values of A and ro has initially been estimated and will be determined more accurately using curve fitting of rotational velocity as a function of r for various spiral galaxies.
Thus:
(2) A = Gn/ro
And:
(3) (Gn + A*ro) = 2 * Gn
When combined with equation 1, the following results:
(4) v * v * ro = 2 * M * Gn
This shows that for cases where the mass, M, of spiral galaxies is within an almost constant range of values, the outer rotational velocity, v, increases when the transition radius, ro, of the spiral galaxy is smaller. The radius, ro, is where the visible stars end, and where the rotational velocity becomes constant. Also, this shows that for spiral galaxies either the rotational velocity for those spiral galaxies increase slowly with the larger mass or radius ro of these spiral galaxies.
HUBBLE CONSTANT, VELOCITY, AND THE EXPANDING UNIVERSE
According to our theory, the "optical Hubble constant", defined in terms of measured red-shift and measured distance, and in units of red-shift per unit of distance, can be shown to be larger for short distances and decrease for larger distances.
If one assumes that the red-shift is a measure of the velocity, then one get a "velocity Hubble constant", in units of velocity per unit of distance, but for galaxies at large distances there is no experimental proof that the red-shift can be used to measure velocity.
The potential energy well for a photon leaving the gravitation well of a star or galaxy and traveling a distance r is given by the integral of the attractive force with respect to the distance r.
The gravitational force under my theory is:
(5) F = M*m (Gn/r*r + A/r)
The loss of energy in moving away from the source of the gravitational force (which is a function of distance) is the force integrated over the distance of travel.
The loss of energy experienced by the photon results in a red-shift that is proportional to the energy loss.
The energy loss and red-shift can be described by
(6) dE = M*m (Gn/r + A*ln r)
and when the term ln r is expanded in a power series in r, the following is first term of the result:
(7) dE = k/r + s * r
where k and s are constants.
The signs of each term are positive because it takes energy to move against attractive forces.
The term k/r corresponds to the energy to move out of a potential well, and the term s*r corresponds to the energy required to move against a long-range attractive force.
The red-shift is proportional to the energy loss and the "optical Hubble constant" is proportional to the red-shift divided by the distance.
(8) Optical H = b (k/r*r + s)
Where "b", "k", and "s" are constants.
This analysis shows why the optical Hubble constant is large for small distances but decreases rapidly as the inverse square of the distance to an asymptotic constant value for large distances. With time, red-shifts of further galaxies are added because of increased instrument sensitivity.
For very large Z values the power series should not be used in place of the ln(r) function.
(9) Optical H = b*k/r*r + s*b * ln(r)/r
REFERENCES AND READING MATERIAL
J. D. Anderson, P. Laing, P.A. Lau, E. L. Liu, A.S. Liu, M. M. Nieto, and S. G. Turyshev, Indication, from Pioneer 10/11, Galileo, and Ulysses Data, of an Apparent Anomalous, Weak, Long-Range Acceleration, Phys. Rev. Lett. 81, 14 (1998) pp. 2858-2861
H. Arp, Seeing Red: red-shifts, Cosmology and Academic Science, (Apeirion, Montreal, Canada, 1998). Also http://red-shift.vif.com
H. Arp, Quasars, red-shifts, and controversies, (Interstellar Media, 1987).
N. A. Bahcall, Large Scale Structure in the Universe", in Unsolved Problems in Astrophysics, edited by J. N.Bahcall, and J. P. Ostriker, (Princeton University Press, NJ, 1997), pp. 61-91.
G. Bothun, Modern Cosmological Observations and Problems, (Taylor & Francis, London, 1998). Other modifications of Newton's law have been proposed along with discussions of the many problems in the current cosmological models.
D. Goldsmith, The Astronomers, (St. Martins Press, NY, 1991), pp. 36-44.
A. Guth, The Inflationary Universe, (Perseus Books, Cambridge Massachusetts, 1977.)
E. R. Harrison, Cosmology: the Science of the Universe (Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 1981), p. 240, Discusses the tired light concept of Zwicky.
E. Hubble, A Relation between Distance and Radial Velocity among Extra Galactic Nebulae, Proceedings of the National Academy of Science, vol.15, pp. 168-73 (1929).
E. Hubble, The Observational Approach to Cosmology, (Clarendon Press, Oxford England, 1937) p. 68.
E. Hubble, and M. Humason, ApJ. 74, 43 (1931)
E. Hubble, The Relm of the Nebulae, (Yale University, New Haven 1936, 1982).
H. Kragh, Cosmology and Controversy, (Princeton University Press, Princeton, N.J. 1996).
R. P. Kushner, Extravagant Universe, (Princeton University, NJ, 2002).
M. Livo, The accelerating universe. (Jogn Wiley, 2000)
M. Milgrom, arXiv: astro-ph/9810302 v1 20 Oct 1998.
M. Milgrom, ApJ. vol. 270, pp. 365-370. (1983)
M. Milgrom, Does Dark Matter Really Exist? Scientific American, pp.42-52, (2002).
P. J. E. Peebles, Principles of Physical Cosmology, (Princeton University Press, N.J.) 1993.
S. Perlmutter, Supernovae, Dark Energy, and the Accelerating Universe, Physics Today, April 2003, p. 53-60.
V. Rubin, and W. K. Ford, Astrophysics Journal 159:379 (1970).
Y. Sofue and V. Rubin, Rotation Curves of Spiral Galaxies, in Annu. Rev. Astrophys. 2001. 39:137-74. Also http://www.physics.ucla.edu/~cwp/articles/rubindm/rubindm.html
L. Smolin, The life of the Cosmos, (Fordam University, N. Y., 1997)
D. Spergel, Dark Matter, in Unsolved Problems in Astrophysics, edited by J. M. Bahcall and J.P. Postriker, (Princeton University Press, Princeton, N.J., 1997) pp.221-240.
S. Weinberg, The First Three Minutes, second edition, (Basic Books, New York, 1988)
F. Zwicky, red-shift of Spectral Line, Proc. Nat. Acad Sci., 1929, vol. 15, pp. 773-9
F. Zwicky, On the Possibilities of a Gravitational Drag of Light, Phys. Rev. Letters 34:Dec. 28, 1929.
Methods of gravity determination using laboratory techniques and equipment are discussed at http://mist.npl.washington.edu/eotwash/gconst.html
Evidence for the Big Bang - Remote Sensing Tutorial
http://rst.gsfc.nasa.gov/Sect20/A9.html
Techniques for measuring distances - describes 26 methods.
http://www.astro.ucla.edu/~wright/distance.htm
NOTE
This Draft provides a number of supporting items for my theory of galactic gravity. Also included is a recalculation of the coefficient A which describes the additional component of the gravitational constant Ga and which generalizes the classical Newton's gravitational constant Gn as a power series: Ga = Gn + A * r to predict and explain the effect of gravity at galactic distances. Remember the work of Newton was based upon the observations possible in our solar system, and not for galactic distances outside our solar system.
I will probably attempt to have my theory and model published in more detail, but distribution by the internet is faster and more effective. You are free to share this information with your colleagues and to link to this page. I would prefer that my theory is proven wrong rather than just ignored.
Because for the last 15 years I have my own consulting company (after 19 years of government and foundation contracts and grants) and am no longer dependent upon contracts or grants I feel free to present material that may be controversial. If my theory and model of the universe is accepted, there will be opportunities for many others to obtain contracts, grants, and other support for additional related research.
Newer expanded versions of my theory will be provided on my web site. I would prefer that my theory is proven wrong rather than just ignored.
A short description of my credentials as a physicist (Ph.D., MIT), as an experimentalist, generalist, and inventor is available at: http://inventing-solutions.com/sa-short.htm.
Sol Aisenberg, Ph.D.
itgplus@earthlink.net
saisenberg@alum.mit.edu
508/651-0140
Copyright © 2003-2004 International Technology Group. All rights reserved worldwide.
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