GALACTIC GRAVITY AND A NEW AND SIMPLIFIED THEORY OF THE UNIVERSE
Providing a Simple Answer to Many of the Mysteries about the Universe
Draft 3
June 15, 2004
July 26, 2004
INTRODUCTION
This analysis describes my modified theory of gravity for the Universe that agrees with
the gravitational theory of Newton and of Einstein - for smaller distances such as in our
solar system - and is also valid and significant at galactic distances.
This is a presentation of my theory of long range gravity that can simplify the model of
the universe. In order to prevent this theory from being classified as speculation, items
of supporting information based upon published observations by others will be included.
It is different from the MOND theory involving gravity and that involves acceleration and
non linear dependence.
My suggestion is that many of the beliefs about the universe are wrong and needlessly
complicated and use the invocation of massive fudge factors such as dark matter and dark
energy. I need only one simple assumption about gravity to simplify the model of the
universe and it is consistent with observations. Of course, I take responsibility for any
of my errors.
For over 70 years (starting in about 1930) the scientific community has been concerned
about problems and mysteries in the understanding of the universe. One problem is finding
dark matter, many times larger than the visible matter represented by light from stars.
Other problems are the apparent expansion of the universe and the apparent acceleration
of the expansion, and the postulated dark energy and repulsive force on galaxies.
According to my new hypothesis, the problems are caused by two fundamental ASSUMPTIONS,
which are commonly used without proof. One is that the attractive force of Newton is
valid without modification at very large galactic distances. The second ASSUMPTION, again
without proof, is that the red shift and the Hubble constant can be used to measure the
velocity of remote stars rather than just the distances.
We will provide a number of supporting arguments for the new hypothesis, and they are
based upon observations reported by others because I do not have or need access to
observational equipment.
Initially, my analysis of the constant velocity rotation curves of spiral galaxies as
reported by Vera Rubin has lead to my new hypothesis that Newton’s gravitational theory
and the gravitational constant, G, has an additional attraction term that increases with
distance. It provides a simple extension of the gravitational force of Newton and
Einstein that is only significant for large distances.
My new hypothesis is that the gravitational constant, G, can be generalized and expanded
into a simple power series in terms of distance, r, and in the form G = Gn + A*r where Gn
is Newton's gravitational constant and where A can be proven to be non zero when
evaluated with observations from spiral galaxies. When asked where the term A*r comes
from, the answer is that it comes from the same place as Newton’s gravitational constant.
Thus according to my hypothesis, the inverse square attractive force between masses is
augmented at very large distances by another force that decreases much slower as a
function of distance and involves an additional term in describing the gravitational
constant. The new representation of the long range gravitational constant Ga is
approximated as the first two terms of a Taylor series: Ga = Gn + A*r where Gn is
Newton’s gravitational constant, r is the distance, and the constant A is to be
determined by use of published observations - or else shown to be zero. Note that this
reduces to Newton's description of gravity in our solar system. (With very precise
measurements possible using space probes, a very tiny addition to gravity apparently can
be detected and measured, and this shows that the theory of gravity should be reexamined.)
Others have suggested a modification of Newtonian gravity. One significant suggestion was
MOND (Modified Newtonian Dynamics) hypothesized in 1983 by Moti Milgrom. Briefly, in the
MOND version the modification of the effect of gravity occurs at very small
accelerations, involves nonlinear acceleration terms, and uses interpolation functions.
It is different from our simple generalization of the gravitational constant which adds a
few terms of a Taylor series which depends upon distance and does not involve
acceleration.
Implications of our theory influence and explain the supposed expansion of the universe,
the acceleration of the expansion of the universe, negative gravity, dark energy, the big
bang, and the deduced transverse velocity of very remote galaxies at velocities greater
than the velocity of light. A significant contribution is the prediction of the changing
Hubble constant, and the meaning of the key observation, the red shift.
An important part of the value and validity of a new hypothesis is the ability to agree
with existing observations, but even more important to make many predictions that can be
confirmed by future observations.
We will provide descriptions of observations that can be explained/predicted by out
theory of galactic gravity. Additional items will be added from time to time.
SUPPORT FOR OUR THEORY, FROM OBSERVATIONS OF OTHERS
SUPPORTING ITEM #1:
Spiral Galaxies and Apparent Dark Matter
While observing a Public Broadcast TV program describing the flat rotation velocity
curves of spiral galaxies I found it hard the believe the postulated existence of massive
amounts of dark matter. It appears that if relationship between gravitational attraction
and distance was an inverse function of distance rather than the usual inverse square
relationship (established in our solar system), the observed flat velocity rotation
curves could be explained without the massive fudge factor of dark matter. Also it
explained why dark matter, if it existed, is not visible from reflected light from nearby
visible stars, like our moon. It also removed the need to explain why dark matter, if it
existed, did not eclipse light from nearby stars like our moon and the planet Venus. Dark
matter is presumably only observed by the extra gravitational effect. This led to the
hypothesis of a gravitational constant that has a component that increases slowly with
distance.
Observations of flat velocity rotation curves of spiral galaxies helped determine an
initial estimate for the value for A. This constant, A describing the additional long
range gravitational force, was evaluated by using the published observations, of Vera
Rubin, for the constant velocity outer rotation curves of spiral galaxies. The constant,
A, was evaluated to be none zero because it described the observed motion without needing
dark matter.
At the transition radius for spiral galaxies, Rs, where the rotation velocity curves
become constant, the Newtonian force and the long range force become approximately equal.
An estimate of Rs was obtained from the intersection of the rising portion of the
rotation curve with the flat portion of the rotation curve. Preliminary analysis of data
from spiral galaxies NGC2403 and NGC3198 using a spiral Galaxy transition radius Rs of
2.7 kpc plus the known value of Gn (Gn = 6.672 x 10^(-8) cm*cm*cm/gr/sec*sec) gives a
preliminary value for A = Gn/Rs = 2.16 10^(-26) cm*cm/gr/sec*sec). This should be refined
by curve fitting using data for rotation velocity as a function of radius, r, for a
number of spiral galaxies.
Thus this hypothesis, based upon published observations, shows that dark matter is not
needed to explain flat rotation curves of spiral galaxies.
Unexpectedly, this has permitted me to explain and predict many other observations and
mysteries in the universe -and could lead to questioning many well accepted theories of the
universe. These additional insights will be posted in future web pages, and possibly in
some professional publications.
SUPPORTING ITEM #2:
Need to Reexamine Gravity in our Solar System
The observation involving very high precision measurements within our solar system
appears to support our hypothesis. Observations of Pioneer 10 and 11 probes indicated
that they were slowing down faster than predicted by Einstein's general theory of
relativity. "Some extra tiny force - equivalent to a ten-billionth of the gravity at
Earth's surface - must be acting on the probes, braking their outward motion." Analysis
by John D. Anderson and his team at JPL ruled out a number of possible explanations of
this extra force. Our hypothesis predicts a very tiny force within solar system
distances, and it is too small to significantly influence the motion of planets but can
slightly influence space vehicles.
The precision measurements reported for the motion of NASA probes Pioneer 10 an 11
indicated a very tiny but verified attractive force towards the sun in addition to the
gravitational force of the sun. This indicates that there apparently is an additional
term in the gravitational attraction that increases with distance and becomes large
enough to detect at solar system distances.
SUPPORTING ITEM #3:
Earlier suggestion of Dark Matter Based Upon Motion of Groups of Galaxies
Observation of unusual motion of groups of spiral galaxies was involved in our model. The
unusual motion of remote groups of spiral galaxies was earlier described by Fred Zwicky.
The concept of dark matter was introduced as an explanation for galaxy motion, and was
prior to the concept of dark matter proposed for spiral galaxies.
Because our simple model involving an additional gravitational force, the unusual motion
of groups of galaxies was explained without the need to invoke massive amounts of dark
matter. It provides a beautiful alternative to dark matter. According to William of
Ockham's razor, the simplest explanation is preferred when it is consistent with past
observations and with future predictions.
It is suggested here that the Virial theory involving kinetic energy and potential energy (and gravity) should be reexamined for cases of galactic distances.
SUPPORTING ITEM #4:
Effect of Galactic Gravity on the Red Shift
As an unexpected result of the enhanced gravitational hypothesis we found that due to the
additional long range attractive gravitational force there was a change of potential
energy that remains significant for light traveling large distances - and this
contributes to the red shift of the light. Integrating the force over distance gives the
energy change, and when the integral is expanded in a simple power series, it shows that
the energy change and red shift is a linear function of travel distance. The red shift
due to distance traveled is in addition to the red shift and blue shift due to the
Doppler effect. This is confirmed by observations showing a linear plot of red shift for
remote stars, and where the distance is determined from observations of Supernovas Type
1a.
However, when the equation involving the galactic gravity term is integrated to describe the energy lost in traveling galactic distances the result is a term that is a logarithmic dependence on distance. For the beginning part of the logarithmic function, the energy loss (and red shift) is approximately a linear function of distance. However, for distances corresponding to light from very far light sources (stars) the distance based upon measurements of light intensity received o Earth will indicate a distance larger than that deduced from the red shift. There is an upward curvature of light deduced distance vs. red shift deduced distance. This has been (incorrectly) used to claim that the acceleration of the universe is accelerating, and also requiring dark energy.
SUPPORTING ITEM #5:
Explaining Tired Light
This provides additional support by explaining the “TIRED LIGHT” concept of Fred Zwicky,
which earlier was presented without acceptable physical reasons for the loss of photon
energy with travel. Zwicky was correct in proposing “TIRED LIGHT” and energy loss in
connection with the red shift, and there is now a physical explanation. He should have
been taken more seriously.
Thus the red shift (and blue shift) has a component due to of travel distance in addition
to the Doppler shift due to the velocity component. For large distances, the travel
component dominates.
SUPPORTING ITEM #6:
The Hubble Assumption Relating Red Shift to Receding Velocity is Wrong
When examining the history of the use of the red shift for very remote stars as a way of
measuring receding velocity, we found that there was another unproven ASSUMPTION and was
made by Hubble and others. We learned that the original papers (Hubble and Humason, 1931)
had a footnote that indicated that it is not certain that the large red shifts should be
interpreted as a Doppler effect but for convenience can be interpreted in terms of
velocity and referred to as “apparent velocities”. This assumption was later incorrectly
converted into evidence of actual velocity and led to serious beliefs about the expanding
universe and subsequently the acceleration of the expansion.
SUPPORTING ITEM #7:
Reasons for the Decreasing Value of the Measures Hubble Constant
Another observation and problem is the large decrease in the Hubble constant as
measurements are made to include the more remote stars.
Our hypotheses and the resulting equations predicts that the Hubble constant relating red
shift to distance will be larger for the closer stars and will decrease to an asymptotic
value for the more remote stars that can be measured with more modern techniques.
Observations show that the early Hubble constant is about a factor of five to ten greater
than modern values. Re-measurement of the Hubble constant for the nearer stars should be
done using modern equipment to confirm the trend downward for greater distances and to
see if the data fits the equation we derived for the dependence of apparent Hubble
constant on measurement distance (which increased with time and the ability to measure
out to further distances).
A serious error in the current theory of the universe is the assumption that red shifts
of remote stars are only due to velocity rather than including red shifts caused by
travel distances. This assumption suggested the current theory of the expanding universe,
plus the acceleration of the expansion. It is also related to the model of the Big Bang,
the concepts of the cosmological constant and dark energy to power the acceleration of
the expansion. Before we speculate too much on the origin of the universe, and the end of
the universe, perhaps we should first understand the present observations of the universe.
SUPPORTING ITEM #8:
Olbers Paradox and the Dark Sky
The meaning of the dark sky (Olbers paradox) and the Cosmic Microwave Background CMB may
also be reexamined from the point of view of the new explanation for "tired light". Our
hypothesis predicts that when light from very remote stars reach us, their energy loss
due to the large travel distance has decreased the energy of the electromagnetic photons
below that of the visible range, and where some are in the microwave range (CMB). The
slower photons essentially come uniformly from all directions with slight irregularities
due to irregularities in the spatial distribution of stars. Thus light from the many
stars in the sky that are beyond a large distance will have their wave lengths shifted by
the distance traveled and down to ranges below the visible range and can only be detected
by instruments that can detect infra red, radio signals, and microwaves.
SUPPORTING ITEM #9:
Distribution of Stars and Galaxies and Quantization of Red Shifts
Another prediction of my model is that because there are voids and discontinuities in the
distribution of stars and galaxies, there should also be discontinues in the red shifts.
This is because there are discontinuities in the distances traveled and the associated
loss of photon energy, according to my model.
As part of this model I predict that the discontinuities and quantization of red shifts
(and possible periodicity) will be seen only when the red shift data are collected from a
narrow angle view of the universe.
I also predict when red shift data are examined for periodicity for wider angle views of
the universe the periodic behavior will disappear and will be rejected because the
periodicity characteristics will be different in different directions and will fill in
the gaps in the periodic aspects.
An example can be seen if one takes slices through a sponge which will have a random
array of pores and gaps. When the images of the slices are overlaid, the array will be
filled in for the composite analysis.
Observation and red shift with gaps and periodicity in the gaps have been reported by
Halton Arp, and is described in: Seeing Red: Redshifts, Cosmology and Academic Science,
by Halton Arp, (Apeirion, Montreal, Canada) 1998
Indeed, I have read that the publication of the report of gaps in red shifts was rejected
when data from larger studies showed no gaps - and this is in agreement with my
prediction that when red shift scans are made for additional directions, the gaps will be
overlaid and will not be observable.
SUPPORTING ITEM #10:
Contributions to Red Shifts
Observations of red shift and deduced star distances of supernovae Type Ia have
demonstrated a linear relationship where the red shift increases with travel distance of
the photons. Fritz Zwicky had earlier introduced the concept of "tired Light" where
photon energy is lost in traveling. When others assumed a model where the photon energy
was lost in collisions with space dust, objections were raised because this model implied
diffuse scattering that would lose image quality. In my theory (particularly where the
effect of gravity persists for larger distances) the mechanism of interacting
gravitationally with interstellar dust extracts energy from the photon, resulting in a
red shift. The dust particles are moved slightly by the gravitational force of the
mass of the passing photon and this is similar to the transfer of energy from the moon to
produce tidal movement in the oceans of Earth resulting in a loss of kinetic energy of
the moon. Observations have shown that gravitational fields will influence the path of
photons. An example is gravitational lensing.
When many tiny gravitational interactions are involved with interstellar dust, the
average effect retains the direction of the photon, thus preserving image quality. Fritz
Zwicky was indeed right about his observation of "tired light" With this insight about
the cause of red shift the ASSUMPTION that the red shift was caused by the Doppler effect
has led to many false directions about the model of the universe.
There are four contributions to the observed red shifts.
First is the Classical Doppler shift involving velocity.
Second is the photon energy loss in traveling galactic distances and losing energy due to
the long range component of the gravitational constant. Note that this is a logarithmic
dependence upon distance and does not involve velocity.
Third is the photon energy loss due to gravitational interaction with dust and
gases in the photon travel. This transfers motion and energy to the dust and can become
significant because the interaction range is increased significantly because of the
galactic gravitational component. For this component the red shift is a linear function
of distance, and does not involve velocity.
The fourth component is due to the energy lost in leaving massive masses in black holes
in galaxies. This explains observations of galaxy pairs that apparently are at similar
distances (because of observed streams of stars between the galaxies) and the different
red shifts that is supposed to show that they are at significantly different distances.
Red shift due to black holes in one galaxy can predict and explain the mysteries. Again not related to velocity.
An important implication of the new understanding of the red shift is that it questions
the use of observed red shifts to show that the universe is expanding, or the
acceleration of the expansion. It also questions the theory of the Big Bang which uses
the supposed expansion as one of its supports.
SUPPORTING ITEM #11:
Galaxies Traveling Transversely Faster Than That of Light
It has been reported (Halton Arp) that when the observed angular transverse velocity of
some (presumably) remote galaxies is used in conjunction with the distances determined
from observed red shifts of these galaxies, the computed transverse velocity is larger
than the velocity of light. Obviously this is in error. My contribution to the
understanding of the red shift components predicts that if a galaxy has a massive mass
then the additional redshift due to the galactic gravity will give an incorrectly large
distance.
SUPPORTING ITEM #12:
Gravity and and Black Holes and Information Leakage
This is intended to show how an understanding of gravity can explain many of the
surprising aspects of the universe.
The recent article (July, 2004) in Economist.com describing the reconsideration by Dr.
Hawking of his 1970 theory of the black hole will help refine our scientific knowledge.
Hawking now feels that information can escape the black hole event horizon and that the
event horizon is an "apparent horizon"
Without calling on quantum mechanics, I suggest that basic physics and theory of the
Schwartzchild radius (which defines the size of the black hole) can also predict and
explain information leakage and in a less complex manner. I describe how some light
(information) can escape the black hole if the light originates from stars above the
bottom of the black hole potential well.
The escape energy required for a mass m to escape from a potential well with a mass M,
and a radius r, is given by G*M*m/r where G is the gravitational constant of Newton. The
energy of a light photon with mass m and velocity c is m*c*c/2. In order to escape the
gravitational potential well the photon energy must be greater than the escape energy.
Thus the Schwartzchild radius Rs for a light photon with velocity c is Rs = 2*G*M/(c*c).
A black hole usually is within a galaxy and sucks in nearby stars. Not all the stars in
the black hole are yet at the bottom of the potential well, and there will always be some
stars above the bottom of the well. Stars will emit light and light photons escaping from
a potential well will have their energy reduced while the velocity c will remain
unchanged. When a photon loses energy the wavelength shifts to the red and the shift
depends upon the distance to the "apparent horizon". A photon from a star at the bottom
of the well can lose enough energy to change to almost infinite wavelength (not
detectable) in reaching the Schwartzchild radius and thus can not be seen to escape.
Light from stars not at the bottom of the gravitational well can escape.
Thus photons from stars not at the bottom of the black hole gravitational well will not
need as much energy to escape and can leak out of the "apparent horizon". Their
wavelength spectrum (uv, visible, infrared, microwave, rf, or longer wavelengths) will
depend upon the location of the emitting star in the black hole potential well.
Because stars in the black hole convert some of their mass to light, there is a mechanism
for mass to leak out through the apparent horizon - along with informatiuon in the form
of light (electromagnetic energy).
CONCLUSION
If considered seriously, the new hypothesis could result in a new, correct, and
simplified view of the universe and could help future work of those in the field. The
hypothesis may only be accepted by a new generation of physicists. I have read that
progress is “made funeral by funeral” as resistance to new theories decreases. One of my
responsibilities is to make my theory available to future generations for their judgment.
Remember that according to William of Ockham’s razor, the simplest explanation is
preferred when it is consistent with past observations and with future predictions.
I have emailed to a number of recognized experts, inviting them to look at the draft of
the PREPRINT and other versions provided on my web site. I would prefer that my theory is
proven wrong rather than just ignored.
My material on the simplified universe will soon be transferred to another one of my web
sites which is dedicated to science. Future links to this new web site will be provided.
APPENDIX A
This provides the evolution of the equations used for the analysis based upon the theory
that includes a long-range term, A*r, to Newton's gravitational constant Gn.
FOR ROTATION CURVES OF SPIRAL GALAXIES AND DARK MATTER:
The forces balancing rotation of a mass "m" in an attractive gravitational field is:
(1)
(m * v * v)/r = M*m (Gn + A*r)/r*r
where M is the attracting mass, m is the rotating mass, Gn is Newton's gravitational
constant, r is the radius of rotation, and A is a coefficient in the first term in the
series expansion of the gravitational force.
The radius "ro" is defined as the radius where the Newtonian gravitational force is equal
to the additional long-range force. The values of A and ro has initially been estimated
and will be determined more accurately using curve fitting of rotational velocity as a
function of r for various spiral galaxies.
Thus:
(2)
(v * v)/ro = M * 2 * A/ro
or
(3)
v * v = 2 * M * A)
For the transition radial location, ro, where the Newton component, Gn, is equal to the
Additional component, A*ro, the following is derived from equation (1):
(4)
A = Gn/ro
When combined with equation (3) the following results:
(5)
v * v = 2 * M * Gn/ro
The following relationship results:
(6)
v * v * ro = 2 * M * Gn
This shows that for cases where the mass, M, of spiral galaxies is within an almost
constant range of values, the outer rotational velocity, v, increases when the radius, r,
of the spiral galaxy is smaller. The radius, ro, is where the visible stars ends, and
where the rotational velocity is constant.
Also, this shows that for spiral galaxies either the rotational velocity and/or the
radius, ro, for those spiral galaxies increase slowly with the larger mass of these
spiral galaxies.
HUBBLE CONSTANT, VELOCITY, AND THE EXPANDING UNIVERSE
According to our hypothesis, the "optical Hubble constant", defined in terms of measured
red shift and measured distance, and in units of red shift per unit of distance, can be
shown to be larger for short distances and decrease for larger distances.
If one assumes that the red shift is a measure on the velocity, then one get a "velocity
Hubble constant", in units of velocity per unit of distance, but for galaxies at large
distances there is no experimental proof that the red shift can be used to measure
velocity.
The potential energy well for a photon leaving the gravitation well of a star or galaxy
and traveling a distance r is given by the integral of the attractive force to the
distance r.
The gravitational force under my hypothesis is:
(7)
F = M*m (Gn/r*r + A/r)
The loss of energy in moving away from the source of the gravitational force (which is a
function of distance) is the force integrated over the distance of travel.
The loss of energy experienced by the photon results in a red shift that is proportional
to the energy loss.
The energy loss and red shift can be described by
(8)
dE = M*m (Gn/r + A*ln r)
and when the term ln r is expanded in a power series in r, the following is first term of
the result:
(9)
dE = k/r + s * r
where k and s are constants.
The signs of each term are positive because it takes energy to move against attractive
forces.
The term k/r corresponds to the energy to move out of a potential well, and the term s*r
corresponds to the energy required to move against a long-range attractive force.
The red shift is proportional to the energy loss and the "optical Hubble constant" is
proportional to the red shift divided by the distance.
(10)
Optical H = b (k/r*r + s)
Where "b", "k", and "s" are constants.
This analysis shows why the optical Hubble constant is large for small distances but
decreases rapidly as the inverse square of the distance to an asymptotic constant value
for large distances.
REFERENCES AND READING MATERIAL
J.D. Anderson, P. Laing, P.A. Lau, E.L. Liu, A.S. Liu, M.M. Nieto,and S.G. Turyshev,
Indication, from Pioneer 10/11, Galileo, and Ulysses Data, of an Apparent Anomalous,
Weak, Long-Range Acceleration, Phys.Rev.Lett. 81, 14 (1998) pp. 2858-2861
H. Arp, Seeing Red: Redshifts, Cosmology and Academic Science, (Apeirion, Montreal,
Canada, 1998)
N.A. Bahcall, Large Scale Structure in the Universe”, in Unsolved Problems in
Astrophysics, edited by J.N.Bahcall, and J.P. Ostriker, (Princeton University Press, NJ,
1997), pp. 61-91
G. Bothun, Modern Cosmological Observations and Problems, (Taylor & Francis, London,
1998). Other modifications of Newton’s law have been proposed along with discussions of
the many problems in the current cosmological models.
D. Goldsmith, The Astronomers, (St. Martins Press, NY, 1991), pp. 36-44.
A. Guth, The Inflationary Universe, (Perseus Books, Cambridge Massachusetts, 1977.)
E. R. Harrison, Cosmology: the science of the universe (Cambridge University Press,
Cambridge, 1981), p. 240, Discusses the tired light concept of Zwicky.
E. Hubble, A Relation between Distance and Radial Velocity among Extra Galactic Nebulae,
Proceedings of the National Academy of Science, vol.15, pp. 168-73 (1929)
E. Hubble, The Observational Approach to Cosmology, (Clarendon Press, Oxford England,
1937) p. 68.
E. Hubble, and M. Humason, ApJ. 74, 43 (1931)
H. Kragh, Cosmology and Controversy, (Princeton University Press, Princeton, N.J. 1996).
R.P. Kushner, Extravagant Universe, (Princeton University, NJ, 2002)
M. Milgrom, arXiv: astro-ph/9810302 v1 20 Oct 1998.
M. Milgrom, ApJ. vol. 270, pp. 365-370. (1983)
M. Milgrom, Does Dark Matter Really Exist? Scientific American, pp.42-52, (2002).
P. J. E. Peebles, Principles of Physical Cosmology, (Princeton University Press, N.J.)
1993.
S. Perlmutter, Supernovae, Dark Energy, and the Accelerating Universe, Physics Today,
April 2003, p. 53-60.
V. Rubin, and W. K. Ford, Astrophysics Journal 159:379 (1970).
Y. Sofue and V. Rubin, Rotation curves of spiral galaxies, in Annu. Rev. Astrophys. 2001.
39:137-74
D. Spergel, Dark Matter, in Unsolved Problems in Astrophysics, edited by J. M. Bahcall
and J.P. Postriker, (Princeton University Press, Princeton, N.J., 1997) pp.221-240.
F. Zwicky, Red Shift of Spectral Line, Proc. Nat. Acad Sci., 1929, vol. 15, pp. 773-9
Methods of gravity determination using laboratory techniques and equipment are discussed
at http://mist.npl.washington.edu/eotwash/gconst.html
Evidence for the Big Bang - Remote Sensing Tutorial
http://rst.gsfc.nasa.gov/Sect20/A9.html
NOTE
This Draft provides a number of supporting items for my hypothesis of galactic gravity.
Also included is a recalculation of the coefficient A which describes the additional
component of the gravitational constant Ga which generalizes Newton's gravitational
constant Gn- Ga = Gn + A * r to predict and explain the effect of gravity at galactic
distances.
A draft of a prior version of my model is provided as a preprint including details of the
new hypothesis and many more implications are presented at:
http://inventing-solutions.com/new-universe.htm.
An expanded version of my analysis including equations and additional references will be
provided, when completed, at: http://inventing-solutions.com/new-model.htm
This site is: http://inventing-solutions.com/new-universe-theory.htm
I will probably attempt to have my theory and model published in more detail, but
distribution by the internet is faster and more effective.
You are free to share this information with your colleagues and to link to this page.
I feel free to present material that may be controversial because I am no longer
dependent upon contracts or grants. If my model is accepted, there will be opportunities
for many others to obtain contracts, grants, and other support for additional related
research.
A short description of my credentials as a physicist (Ph.D., MIT), as an experimentalist,
and as a generalist is available at: http://inventing-solutions.com/sa-short.htm.
Sol Aisenberg, Ph.D.
itgplus@earthlink.net
508/651-0140
|
